Balancing Elephant: Conservation and Ecosystem Health

African elephants (Loxodonta africana) are not only the largest land animals on Earth but also

among the most intelligent and socially complex species. Living in matriarchal family groups, they

form intricate social networks characterized by empathy, cooperation, and long-term memory. The

oldest female, or matriarch, leads her herd to waterholes, feeding grounds, and safe route.

Knowledge often passed down over decades (McComb et al., 2001, Proc. R. Soc. B).

Elephants exhibit remarkable cognitive and emotional capacities. Playback experiments have shown

they can recognize the calls of over 100 different individuals, both relatives and non-relatives, even

over long distances (Poole et al., 2016, Nat. Commun.). They mourn their dead, protect their young

collectively, and communicate through low-frequency rumbles traveling several kilometers through

the ground (O’Connell-Rodwell et al., 2007, BioScience).

Elephant Family crossing the Road in Kruger National Park with KPS Safaris

Male elephants play a crucial role as well. Mature bulls (particularly over 30 years old) moderate the behavior of younger males, reduce aggression, and maintain hierarchy within bachelor groups.

When older bulls are absent, younger males are more prone to prolonged musth and display dangerous behavior toward other animals and humans (Slotow et al., 2000, Nature).

As primatologist Jane Goodall famously said,

“Elephants are the architects of the savannah. Without them, the ecosystem would collapse.”

Their feeding and tree-felling behavior shape landscapes, create habitats for smaller species, and open pathways for countless others. They are ecosystem engineers in every sense (Haynes, 2012, Ecology and Evolution).

From Victims of Poaching to Overpopulation

Throughout the 20th century, elephants were decimated by the ivory trade. Between the 1970s and

1980s, Africa’s elephant population declined by over 50%, with approximately 700,000 individuals

lost to poaching (UNEP & CITES, 2013). Thanks to stronger anti-poaching laws, and the creation of protected areas, populations in many regions have recovered.

Today, some parks face a different challenge: overpopulation. In Kruger (South Africa) and Chobe

(Botswana), elephant densities have surpassed the ecological carrying capacity. The consequences

are clear: trees are toppled, vegetation structure is altered, and plant diversity declines, affecting

birds, insects, and other herbivores (Kerley et al., 2008, Biol. Conserv.).

Blykbaar naby Nata in Botswana

Large herds compact soil, erode landscapes, and overuse water sources, reducing ecosystem

resilience. Overpopulated herds may enter agricultural zones, destroying crops and threatening

livelihoods (Hoare, 2015, Oryx). Overpopulation also raises health and behavioral risks: increased

competition for limited food weakens immune systems, fosters disease transmission, and elevates

stress, measurable through cortisol levels (Gobush et al., 2008, Anim. Conserv.).

Dr. Paula Kahumbu emphasizes the moral dimension:

“We must consider elephants as part of our family. Their welfare is our welfare”

(Kahumbu, 2022,WildlifeDirect).

Relocations and Their Limits

Translocation (the capture and movement of elephants to less populated areas) has been used for

decades as a non-lethal management tool. In theory, it redistributes populations and reduces local

ecological pressure. However, in practice, it faces severe limitations.

Elephants possess extraordinary spatial memory and are known to return over hundreds of

kilometers to their original home ranges, even years after relocation (Fernando et al., 2008,

Biological Conservation). This homing instinct renders many translocation efforts temporary or

ineffective.

The process itself is logistically complex and extremely costly. Transporting a single family group

can cost tens of thousands of dollars and requires heavy machinery, veterinary supervision, and

aerial support (IUCN African Elephant Specialist Group, 2020). Moreover, it is stressful for the

animals: elevated heart rates, dehydration, and injury risks are common, particularly for calves

separated from their mothers during capture (Pinter-Wollman, 2009, Animal Behaviour).

Additionally, relocated elephants can disrupt social hierarchies in the recipient populations, leading

to conflicts with resident herds. In cases where animals are moved to smaller reserves, the new

ecosystems can also suffer from overbrowsing or competition with existing wildlife (Hoare & du

Toit, 1999, Oryx Journal).

Culling, Natural Mortality, and the Role of Trophy Hunting

Culling, the targeted killing of elephants, is currently being used again in Kruger National Park and

other protected areas in South Africa as a management tool to stabilize the balance between

vegetation, biodiversity, and elephant populations (South African National Parks, 2024).

Mother and Baby Elephant

Earlier culling programs primarily targeted older elephants, typically between 20 and 35 years old,

under the assumption that their removal would have minimal impact on social structures. However, eliminating experienced matriarchs caused significant disruptions: these older elephants hold intergenerational knowledge of water sources, migration routes, and danger zones, serving as essential social anchors. Their removal profoundly affects the survival, orientation, and cohesion of entire herds (Bangor University, 2025). Even beyond this, culling undermines complex social

networks and learning processes. Young bulls growing up without older male role models often

develop abnormal dominance behaviors. Without experienced elephants to guide and regulate them,

these young males exhibit exaggerated aggression; similar to children raised without parental

guidance. Such individuals, commonly referred to as “naughty elephants,” have demonstrated

increased aggression toward both humans and other elephants.

Natural Mortality and the Lack of Predators

Adult elephants have virtually no natural predators; only weakened or very young individuals are

occasionally preyed upon by lions or hyenas. Most elephants die from drought, malnutrition, or

water scarcity, especially during periods of climatic extremes. Studies show that during dry periods,

Master of the Landscape

elephants frequently die from exhaustion, dehydration, or age-related tooth wear that impedes feeding (Douglas-Hamilton et al., 2005, Biol. Conserv.; Moss, 2011).

With increasing droughts due to climate change, this slow starvation becomes a severe animal

welfare issue. In dense populations, culling or regulated hunting can sometimes be considered a means to prevent such prolonged suffering (Joubert, 2007).

Controlled Trophy Hunting as a Potential Alternative

In recent years, controlled trophy hunting has been discussed as a potentially more sustainable

alternative to large-scale culling. Under scientific oversight and clear ethical standards, it can create

economic incentives, secure habitats, and selectively remove older, non-reproductive bulls

(Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, 2022).

One major advantage lies in the economic aspect: trophy hunting can generate substantial revenue

that supports protected areas, anti-poaching programs, and local development projects. In Namibia,

for example, the Conservancy model channels a significant portion of hunting revenue directly to

local communities, funding schools, wells, and ranger positions. This community-based use of

wildlife has proven effective in actively involving local populations in conservation (Naidoo et al.,

2016, Biol. Conserv.).

A Moment in the Water

Another positive aspect is the incentive to preserve habitats. Studies show that in regions where legal, regulated hunting is permitted, wildlife populations remain stable or even increase, while comparable areas without economic use often experience higher poaching rates (Lindsey et al., 2007, Biol. Conserv.).

By generating revenue from wildlife, hunting areas create a financial reason to maintain large, contiguous landscapes rather than converting them into farmland.

Additionally, selective hunting of individual older bulls can help reduce human–elephant conflicts. In high-density populations, elephants often destroy crops or enter villages. By targeting problem individuals and directing the revenue to affected communities, local acceptance of elephant conservation increases (Dickman et al., 2019, Conserv. Biol.).

Scientifically managed hunting programs emphasize selectivity: only older bulls, typically over 40

years old and past their reproductive phase, are removed (Campfire Data Summary, 2022). This

approach contrasts sharply with poaching, which usually targets young, reproductive animals. With

clear quotas, transparent management, and independent oversight, trophy hunting can become part

of an integrated population management strategy that balances ecological and social factors

(Lindsey et al., 2020, PLOS ONE).

Culling versus Hunting – A Comparison

In direct comparison, culling can quickly reduce population numbers but has profound negative

effects on social structures and learning processes within herds, leaving long-term disturbances

measurable decades later (Shannon et al., 2013). Regulated trophy hunting, in contrast, is selective,

generally affects only individual animals, and, when conducted under strict ecological guidelines,

can help financially stabilize protected areas and strengthen community support (Naidoo et al.,

2016; Lindsey et al., 2007).

Hormonal Contraception – A Scientifically Justified Management Tool

Hormonal contraception is increasingly recognized as a scientifically supported and ethically

defensible method to regulate elephant populations while maintaining social cohesion. This strategy

uses hormonal implants or immunocontraceptive vaccines to temporarily suppress ovulation in

females or spermatogenesis in bulls. Unlike domestic species, surgical sterilization in elephants is

technically extremely difficult, high-risk, and stressful, making hormonal methods the most

practical and minimally invasive alternative (East, 2009, Journal of Wildlife Management).

While contraception in bulls has been successfully implemented in several conservation projects,

studies and long-term experience with female elephants remain limited. Further research is needed

to understand potential effects on fertility cycles, stress physiology, and social dynamics, and to

develop protocols that minimize disturbance and health risks (Pienaar et al., 2019, Animal

Reproduction Science).

Implementing hormonal contraception is logistically complex and costly. Each procedure requires

immobilization with tranquilizers, veterinary supervision, repeated administration, and careful

monitoring to maintain efficacy (Keeley et al., 2015, Journal of Wildlife Diseases). Costs per animal

can reach tens of thousands of dollars annually, depending on herd size, accessibility, and delivery

method. Despite these challenges, the method allows populations to be managed without destroying natural social structures or causing unnecessary animal suffering.

Maintaining Ecological Balance

Elephants are the builders of the savannah, shaping vegetation, creating habitats for other species,

and promoting biodiversity through their feeding, trampling, and tree-felling activities (Haynes,

2012, Ecology and Evolution). However, overpopulation can disrupt these ecological functions.

When elephant densities exceed the ecological carrying capacity, vegetation degradation, soil

compaction, and loss of plant diversity can occur, negatively affecting other wildlife and ecosystem

services (Kerley et al., 2008, Biological Conservation).

Young Elephants in Action

Studies suggest that an ideal elephant population density is roughly 1 elephant per 1,000 hectares,

which allows elephants to fulfill their ecological role without causing long-term habitat damage

(Chase et al., 2016, Biological Conservation). In this context, targeted hormonal contraception is ahigh-investment but high-value tool that balances elephant welfare,

social integrity, and ecosystem preservation.

Our Work at Kruger Conservation

At Kruger Conservation, we are dedicated to protecting Africa’s elephants while maintaining the

delicate balance of their ecosystems. One of our key initiatives is the use of hormonal contraception

for selected bulls in the Greater Kruger region.

By temporarily regulating reproductive capacity, this

Elephant receives medical treatment and GPS collaring under sedation.

method helps reduce aggressive behaviors in young males during musth, while preserving the

natural herd structures, social hierarchies, and invaluable knowledge passed down through

generations.

By working with the resources and tools currently available to us, and through continuous

monitoring, careful management of water sources, migration corridors, and vegetation, as well as

close collaboration with local communities, we strive to do the very best for elephants and the

ecosystem, ensuring that these iconic animals continue to thrive in a sustainable and ethical way.

Engaging the Public

Conservation is a shared responsibility, and everyone can play a part. Your support can take many

forms: donations directly fund our conservation projects, volunteer programs provide hands-on

experience in wildlife management, and working holidays offer the opportunity to actively protect

elephants and their habitats.

We warmly invite you to join our mission.

Together, we can secure a sustainable future for Africa’s elephants, ensuring that these majestic

creatures continue to shape the savannah, maintain biodiversity, and coexist harmoniously with

people. Every action matters: your choices and involvement can make a tangible difference for

wildlife and the environment.

For the elephants, for the wild

your choice can change their tomorrow.

Take Action